Concept Paper: Impacts of Social Media on Mental Health of Adolescents and Young Adults

Literature Review

The effects of social media (SM) on the mental wellbeing of adolescents and young adults have gained considerable attention amongst scholars and in the media. Terms like “Facebook depression” are increasingly becoming common in the mainstream media (Hardy & Castonguay, 2018). Social networking sites (SNSs) such as Snapchat, Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook, are considered potential triggers for mental stress, which poses significant concern considering the widespread use of these sites by adolescents. This literature review shows mixed impacts of SM on the mental wellbeing of adolescents. Some studies show that SM is beneficial while others report is detrimental effects. Still, others report that mental wellbeing outcomes are influenced by how adolescents use these platforms.

Theoretical Orientation for the Research Concept

Various theories and models have been used to understand how SM affects the mental health of adolescents and young adults. For instance, Cauberghe et al. (2021) used the mood management model as the conceptual framework to examine the mediating role associated with various SM coping types including humorous coping, social relations, and active coping, and how these coping types affected feelings of happiness (Cauberghe et al., 2021). The mood management model postulates that consuming entertaining media messages can alter existing mood states and that selecting particular messages to consume can regulate mood states. Another useful theory is the Uses and Gratifications (U&G) framework, which posits that people are active in terms of their media choices and engage in particular technologies for fulfilling their specific needs (Coyne et al., 2020). Another useful theory is the displacement hypothesis, which posits that the time that an individual spends on SM may displace other valuable activities, like sleep or face-to-face contact, which are likely to be protective for mental health; therefore, spending time on SM may be detrimental to mental health (Coyne et al., 2020).

Review of the Literature

Negative Impacts

Numerous studies have been performed to assess how SM impacts the mental health of adolescents and young adults, which have reported mixed results. Some studies have reported deleterious effects of SM on the aspects of mental wellbeing of adolescents. Some themes explored include nervous breakdowns, depression, anxiety, and reducing self-esteem.

Nervous Breakdowns

 Hardy and Castonguay (2018) examined the connection between mental health and SM and the moderating role played by age in this relationship using data obtained from the 2016 General Social Survey (GSS). The findings from this study revealed that, for young adults aged 18-29 years, SM use had a negative impact on their mental health in terms of feeling nervous breakdowns; however, for adults aged 30+ years, the impact of SM use on their mental health was positive; thus, suggesting that SM use negatively impacts young adults but not older adults.

Depression

The negative effect of SM on the mental health of adolescents was also reported in a meta-analysis by Ivie et al. (2020), who examined the link between depression symptoms and the use of SM in adolescents aged 11-18 years. The authors reviewed 11 studies published during 2012-2020 and reported small significant positive impact of SM use on depressive symptoms; however, heterogeneity was high suggesting that the relationship between SM use and depression might be moderated by other factors. Similar findings on the positive impact of SM use on depression in young adults were reported by Lin et al. (2016), who surveyed 1787 participants aged 19-32 years. The researchers measured SM use in terms of the daily time spent using SM and visits to SNSs per week. The findings from this survey showed that participants who devote more time on SM and frequently visited SNSs had higher odds of developing depression; therefore, they concluded that SM use in adolescents increased the risk of depression. A systematic review conducted by Piteo and Ward (2020) also supplied evidence supporting a positive association between depressive symptoms, and frequent and higher use of SNSs. Another meta-analysis by Vahedi and Zanella (2021) with 80533 participants showed a small significant albeit positive impact of SNSs use on self-reported depression symptoms. In the same vein, Woods and Scott (2016) reported that teenagers who devote more time and are more emotional invested in SM ted to have higher depressive symptoms. Similarly, findings from a correlational study by Waqas et al. (2018) showed a significant positive link between depression and SM use in college students. The positive impact of SM use on depression has also been documented by other researchers (Coyne et al., 2020; Mundy et al., 2020; Primack et al., 2009; Primack et al., 2017). Overall, these studies indicate that SM use increases the odds of developing depressive symptoms in the adolescent population.

Anxiety

Evidence exists showing that SM use heightens anxiety in adolescents. A systematic review by Piteo and Ward (2020) investigated the relationship between anxiety symptoms SNSs use in adolescents aged 5-18 years. Their findings showed that frequent use of SNS and increased time spent on SM were linked to higher anxiety symptoms; nevertheless, other variables like social comparison and social support might affect this relationship. The authors concluded that although evidence exists showing that SNSs contribute to anxiety in adolescents, the effect size is small and derived from poor-quality studies. Similarly, Woods and Scott (2016) reported that teenagers who devote more time and are more emotional invested in SM ted to have higher anxiety symptoms. Similarly, a qualitative study conducted by O’Reilly et al. (2018) reported that adolescents usually viewed SM as being a threat to their mental wellbeing by causing anxiety and mood disorders. Evidence on the worsening impacts of SM on adolescent anxiety was also provided by Vannucci et al. (2017), who showed a positive association between using SM and dispositional anxiety symptoms. Moreover, Vannucci et al. (2017) reported that daily usage of SM increased the odds of participants having severe anxiety. The positive impact of SM use on adolescent anxiety has also been reported by Primack et al. (2017) and Mundy et al. (2020). Taken together, these studies show that SM use can increase the risk of developing anxiety problems in adolescents.

Stress and Emotional Regulation Difficulties

Rasmussen et al. (2020) explored the impact of SM use on the mental wellbeing of emerging adults, especially on their emotional regulation problems and perceived stress. The authors surveyed 546 college students aged 18-34 years and measured their SM use (time spend on these platforms), emotion regulation difficulties and stress. The findings indicated a positive correlation between SM use, and emotion regulation difficulties and stress. Therefore, SM use constitutes a risk factor for mental health problems in young adults by increasing their stress levels.

Self-esteem

The issue of self-esteem and SM use has been studied by Woods and Scott (2016), who surveyed 467 Scottish adolescents. The authors measured use of SM, self-esteem, and emotional investment on SM. The findings from the research indicated that adolescents who with higher emotional investment in SM and frequently used these platforms had lower self-esteem, which suggests the negative impacts of SM on self-esteem.

Positive Impacts

Some positive impacts of SM use on the mental health of adolescents have also been documented. Some themes including constructive coping, protecting against depression, increasing happiness and lessening loneliness have been reported in the literature.

Constructive Coping

Cauberghe et al. (2021), using the mood management theory, surveyed 2165 adolescents to examine if SM is beneficial to them, in terms of coping with feelings of loneliness and anxiety in the course of quarantine. The dependent variable in the study was happiness while the independent variables were anxiety and loneliness measured. The findings from the study showed that loneliness feelings had a higher negative effect on participants’ happiness compared to anxiety feelings; nevertheless, anxious adolescents were more likely to utilize SM for active coping. The authors concluded that using SM can serve as a productive coping approach for anxious adolescents.

Protecting Against Depression

Unlike Ivie et al. (2020) who showed a positive association between SM use and depression in adolescents, Kreski et al. (2021) showed that SM might be protective against depression in adolescents. Kreski et al. (2021) utilized data obtained from the Monitoring the Future (MFF) survey of 74472 8^th and 10^th grade students. The findings indicted that no relationship existed between low versus high depressive symptoms in girls whereas the findings were not consistent in boys; thus, hinting a protective impact of using SM daily. Using these findings, the authors concluded that their findings limit the evidence that support SM as a risk factor for depression.

Reducing Loneliness and Increasing Happiness

Pittman and Reich (2016) examined the impact of SM on loneliness amongst young adults. They employed a mixed design survey with 253 undergraduate students and measured their happiness and loneliness levels and SM use. The hypothesized that image-based SM platforms like Snapchat and Instagram can reduce loneliness because they provide enhanced intimacy. They also hypothesized that text-based platforms like Twitter provide little intimacy; thus, should not have an impact on loneliness. The findings from their study indicated that using image-based platforms increased life satisfaction and happiness and reduced loneliness; however, text-based platforms were not effective in increasing happiness.

Impact Depends on Usage

Rather than reporting clear cut negative or positive impacts, some researchers indicate that the impact of SM depend on how they are used. Verduyn et al. (2021) performed an experience sampling study with the goal of examining the differential impacts of passive and active use of Facebook on mental health. Active use entails direct exchanges or communications with others while passive use entails monitoring other people without communicating or interacting with them directly. The study found that passive use reduced affective mental wellbeing while active use did not have an impact on mental wellbeing. The authors concluded that SM use is neither bad nor bad; instead, their impacts on mental health are dependent on how they are used. Similarly, Escobar-Viera et al. (2018) reported that passive use of SM was linked to an increase in depression symptoms whereas active usage was associated with a drop in depression symptoms. Similarly, Yang (2016) showed that Instagram browsing and interaction were linked to lesser loneliness whereas Instagram broadcasting increased loneliness; thus, the author advocated for healthy usage of SM platforms. Overall, these studies report both positive and negative impacts of SM use on mental wellbeing depending on how adolescents use them.

Synthesis of Research Findings

The findings from the literature review show an unclear picture regarding the impacts of SM on mental wellbeing of adolescents. The findings reveal both positive and negative effects on mental health associated with SM use in adolescents. One of the positive impacts documented in the literature include SM being used as a constructive coping strategy for managing negative emotions such as anxiety (Cauberghe et al., 2021). SM use can also potentially protect adolescents from developing depressive symptoms (Kreski et al., 2021). Pittman and Reich (2016) reported that using image-based SM platforms can increase happiness and lower loneliness.

Despite the aforementioned positive impacts, deleterious influences of SM use on the mental wellbeing of adolescents of adolescents and young adults have also been reported in the literature. Hardy & Castonguay (2018) reported that social use increases the likelihood of young adults having a nervous breakdown compared to older adults aged 30+ years. SM use in adolescents can also increase depressive symptoms (Coyne et al., 2020; Ivie et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2016; Piteo & Ward, 2020; Woods & Scott, 2016; Waqas et al., 2018; Mundy et al., 2020; Primack et al., 2009; Primack et al., 2017). In addition, use of SNSs has been linked to increased anxiety symptoms (Piteo & Ward, 2020; Woods & Scott, 2016; O’Reilly et al., 2018; Vannucci et al., 2017; Primack et al., 2017; Mundy et al., 2020). Use of SM can also increase stress and lead to emotion regulation difficulties (Rasmussen et al., 2020) and lower self-esteem (Woods & Scott, 2016). However, it is essential to note that most studies report negative impacts of SM on the aspects of mental health such as depression, anxiety, stress, self-esteem, nervous breakdown, and emotion regulation problems.

Another strand of literature advocates for the healthy usage of SM platforms by adolescents and young adolescents. These scholars report that the mental health outcomes of SM use are influenced by the manner in which these platforms are used. Passive use of SM is detrimental while active use is beneficial for the mental health of adolescents (Verduyn et al. (2021; Escobar-Viera et al. (2018). Instagram browsing and interaction were linked to lesser loneliness whereas Instagram broadcasting increased loneliness (Yang, 2016). Therefore, outcomes are dependent on how adolescents utilize SM.

Critique of Previous Research Methods

In the literature, the impacts of SM on the mental health of adolescents have been examined mostly using descriptive methods like surveys, and self-selection bias has been cited as a methodological limitation (Cauberghe et al., 2021; Coyne et al., 2020; Ivie et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2016; Piteo & Ward, 2020; Woods & Scott, 2016; Waqas et al., 2018; Mundy et al., 2020; Primack et al., 2009; Primack et al., 2017). The use of descriptive methodologies makes it problematic to make causal inferences regarding the association between SM and the mental health of adolescents and young adults. Essentially, most studies included in the literature are mostly correlational and observational rather than experimental; hence, causal inference cannot be made regarding the impact of SM on the mental health of adolescents and young adults. Most of these studies also rely on self-reported data. By using an experimental approach, a clear impact of SM on mental health of adolescents can be determined. An experimental approach could help differentiate mental wellbeing outcomes in users and non-users of social media.

Summary

From the literature review, the theoretical frameworks that can be useful to understand how SM impacts the mental wellbeing of adolescents include mood management model, U&G framework, and the displacement hypothesis. Evidence from the literature review fails to reveal a clear impact of SM on adolescents’ mental wellbeing. A few studies have reported positive impacts such as constructive coping, protecting against depression, increasing happiness and lessening loneliness. However, the majority of the studies have showed detrimental impacts including nervous breakdowns, depression, anxiety, and reducing self-esteem. Still, some studies indicate that mental wellbeing outcomes depend on how adolescents utilize SM. The overall conclusion is that it is still unclear with respect to how SM use affects adolescents’ wellbeing. Research using experimental approaches is needed to delineate the effects of SM on adolescents.

Impact of Social Media Use on the Mental Health of Adolescents and Young Adults

The proposed research seeks to examine the impacts of SM use on the mental health outcomes of adolescents and young adults. The specific mental health outcomes of interest are depression, anxiety, and perceived loneliness. The topic is significant considering the growing mental health problems in young adults and adolescents. The prevalence of suicide-related outcomes and mood disorders in young adults and adolescents has risen considerably amidst the increasing use of SM, which has led to concerns that SM might a contributing factor to this problem (Twenge et al., 2019). An estimated 45% of teenagers report being constantly on SM while an additional 44% report being on SM several times every day, which has led to questions regarding potential impacts of these platforms on their mental health (Mir et al., 2021). Thus, the proposed study is significant in that it helps contribute towards the debate regarding the role that SM plays in influencing the mental health of teenagers and young adults. This concept paper outlines background, research problem, research question, goals and objectives, and methodology and procedures for the proposed study.

Background

The relationship between mental health and SM use in teenagers and young adults has gained substantial attention amongst scholars, which is attributed to concurrence of growing SM use and rising mental health problems in this population. Studies have not been consistent in reporting the effects of SM on the mental health of teenagers and young adults. On the one hand, some studies have showed that SM use can worsen mental health outcomes for teenagers. For instance, Hardy and Castonguay (2018) showed that SM use increases the risk of nervous breakdowns among teenagers. Some scholars have reported the worsening impacts of SM use on depressive symptoms (Ivie et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2016; Mundy et al., 2020). Other studies show that SM use in teenagers can worsen anxiety symptoms (Piteo & Ward, 2020; Vannucci et al., 2017), increase stress (Rasmussen et al., 2020), and lower self-esteem (Woods & Scott, 2016). These studies highlight the negative influences of SM use on the mental health of young adults and teenagers.

On the other hand, some scholars have reported the beneficial impacts that SM use has with respect to improving mental health of young adults and teenagers. For example, Cauberghe et al. (2021) reported that anxious teenagers can utilize SM as a productive coping strategy. Some studies have also reported that SM use can be protective against depressive symptoms in teenagers; thus, lowers the risk of developing depression (Kreski et al., 2021). In addition, SM use has also been shown to lower feelings of loneliness while at the same time increase feelings of happiness in young adults (Pittman & Reich, 2016). These findings are in stark contrast with those highlighting the beneficial impacts of SM on the mental health of young adults and teenagers. As a result, how SM use affects adolescents with regard to their mental health remains unclear and a subject of contention.

Still, there are other scholars who claim that the impacts of SM use on the mental health of teenagers and young adults is dependent on how these platforms are used. Verduyn et al. (2021) discovered that active SM use characterized by directly communicating with others has no impact on the mental wellbeing of teenagers; however, passive SM use typified by monitoring other people on these platforms without engaging them negatively impacted their wellbeing. In the same vein, Escobar-Viera et al. (2018) found that passive SM use increased depressive symptoms while active SM use lowered depression symptoms. Interacting on Instagram reduced loneliness although broadcasting on the same platform resulted in an increase in loneliness (Yang, 2016). Overall, from the literature, it is evident that the impacts of SM use on the mental health of young adults and teenagers are not clear, which represents a gap and a source of debate. As a result, there is need for additional research to help clarify the relationship between SM use and mental wellbeing of young adults and teenagers.

Research Problem

From the literature, the positive and negative impacts of SM use on the mental wellbeing of teenagers and young adults are known. SM use can aid in constructive coping, reduce the risk of depression, increase happiness, and lower loneliness (Cauberghe et al., 2021; Kreski et al., 2021; Pittman & Reich, 2016). At the same time, SM use can result in lower self-esteem, anxiety increased depression, and nervous breakdowns (Hardy & Castonguay, 2018; Ivie et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2016; Mundy et al., 2020; Piteo & Ward, 2020; Vannucci et al., 2017; Rasmussen et al., 2020; Woods & Scott, 2016). From the literature, it is also known that mental health outcomes associated with SM use are dependent on how young adults and teenagers use these platforms. Taken together, the evidence found in the extant literature fails to provide a clear picture on how SM use impacts the mental wellbeing of young adults and teenagers.

Research Question

The overarching research question for the proposed study is “Does mental wellbeing outcomes differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not?” the following is the primary hypothesis for the proposed study:

Alternate hypothesis: There is a significant difference in the mental wellbeing outcomes of teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not.

Null Hypothesis: There is no difference in the mental wellbeing outcomes of teenagers who use SM and those who do not.

The following are the sub-questions that will be used to answer the main research question:

• Does depression symptoms differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not?

H1_a: Depression symptoms differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not

H1₀: Depression symptoms do not differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not.

• Does anxiety symptoms differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not?

H2_a: Anxiety symptoms differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not

H2₀: Anxiety symptoms do not differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not.

• Does perceived loneliness differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not?

H3_a: Perceived loneliness differs between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not

H3₀: Perceived loneliness does not differ between teenagers and young adults who use SM and those who do not.

Goals and Objectives

The goal of the proposed research will be to assess the impacts of SM use on the mental wellbeing of teenagers and young adults, particularly on the negative emotions on depression, anxiety, and symptoms. To achieve this goal, the mental wellbeing outcomes of teenagers and adolescents who use SM and those who do not will be compared in order to determine if SM is beneficial or detrimental to their mental wellbeing. The proposed study will be useful in clarifying the impacts of SM use on mental health; hence, helping provide clarity regarding the debate surrounding the relationship between SM and mental wellbeing in teenagers and young adults. The following are the specific objectives of the proposed study:

1. To evaluate the impact of SM use on depressive symptoms in young adults and teenagers
2. To assess the impact of SM use on anxiety symptoms in young adults and teenagers
3. To assess the impact of SM use on perceived loneliness in young adults and teenagers

Population and Sample

The study will assess the association between social media use and the various effects it has on the mental health of adolescents and young adults. The setting for the proposed study is Los Angeles, California. The general population will consist of adolescents and young adults of age 13-29 years. The target population will consist of adolescents and young adults aged 13-29 years who use social media (SM). Adolescents and young adults constitute one of the populations with the highest usage of SM platforms (Cauberghe et al., 2021; Ivie et al., 2020; Kreski et al., 2021). The study sample will comprise of young adults and adolescents aged 13-29 years, who reside in Los Angeles, California, and use SM. The study population will be diverse in terms of demographic features such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, physical abilities, and sexual orientation. When recruiting participants in the sample, the diversity in the population will be maintained to ensure it is representative. Rasmussen et al. (2020) conducted a study that included participants who were racially diverse; for example, the participants were reported as being Caucasian (73%), Hispanic/Latino (13%), Black/African American (7%), Asian (2%), American Indian/Alaska Native (1%), and less than 1% as Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander. To ensure that the study has a diverse sample that accurately represents all of the demographics of the population is by locating study sites in Los Angeles, California that consists of individuals with diverse backgrounds. Furthermore, it is also important to examine one’s own background and biases, become culturally competent, and interact with diverse individuals and groups.

The sampling design is probability sampling and the sampling type is simple random sampling. In probability sampling, members of a study population have the same likelihood of being selected, which is not the case with non-probability sampling where the population does not have the same chance of taking part in the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Simple random sampling will be used, this involves choosing participants by using tools such as random number generators or other methods that are based on chance. Simple random sampling is appropriate for this study because it allows the population to have an equal chance of getting selected to participate in the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).

A sample power analysis was performed to determine the threshold sample size needed for the study. Participants will be classified into high- and low-users of SM and mental health consequences compared between the two groups. Therefore, the parameters for power analysis include a two-tailed t-test to compare the difference between two unrelated groups, medium effect size of 0.5, significance of 0.05, statistical power of 0.8 and an allocation ratio of 1, the minimum sample size required is 128 – 64 high-users and 64 low-users of SM.

Methodology and Procedures

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is defined as collecting and analyzing numerical data to explain a phenomenon and generalize the results to the population under study. The main reason for conducting a quantitative research is to assess relationships between variables such as making causal and predictive associations. Other uses of quantitative research include investigating averages, patterns, and trends (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Quantitative research is characterized by using standardized data collection instruments, large representative samples, replicable study procedures, and statistical analysis of data. Quantitative research is suited for closed-ended and clearly-defined research questions having preset variables, which in this case are mental health and SM use (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Therefore, the quantitative methodology is aligned with the research problem, question, and objectives of the proposed study.

The research design for the proposed study is causal-comparative. This design is employed in research studies seeking to investigate associations between independent and dependent variables after the occurrence of a phenomenon by comparing the dependent variable in at least two groups without the manipulation of the independent variable (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). The causal-comparative design is a form of a quasi-experiment, and is ideal in situations where conducting an experimental research is considered unethical or impossible (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). This design will be suitable for the proposed study because it will be problematic to manipulate the independent variable of SM use since people cannot be allocated into SM users and non-users. Instead, it will be more practical to study them as they are.

Instruments. The sources of data for the proposed research will be obtained from self-administered questionnaires. The independent variable of SM use will be a categorical variable where participants will be grouped into SM users and SM non-users based on their self-reported use of SM platforms. The dependent variable will be measured using four items from the Bentler Medical and Psychological Functioning Inventory’s depression scale (Kreski et al., 2021). The items included “the future seems hopeless,” “life often seems meaningless,” “I enjoy life as much as anyone (reverse coded),” and “It feels good to be alive (reverse coded).” These items were measured using a five-point Likert scale that ranges from disagree (1) to agree (5). These items have been employed to assess depression in other studies and have reported satisfactory reliability of 0.72 (Kreski et al., 2021). The scores will be summed such that the scores will range from four to 20 (Kreski et al., 2021). Anxiety will be measured using the anxiety subscale of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, which comprises of seven items with scores that range from zero to three such that the scores range from zero to 21. The HADS is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing anxiety in teen samples with a reliability of 0.72 (Woods & Scott, 2016). Perceived loneliness will be assessed using the revised UCLA loneliness scale (RULS-6). The six items in the scale are scored from one (never) to four (always) such that the scores range from four to 24 (Cauberghe et al., 2021). RULS-6 was found to be reliable in adolescent samples (Cauberghe et al., 2021). The variables of depression, anxiety, and perceived loneliness are interval/ratio measures.

Data Collection. Paper-based questionnaires will be distributed randomly to teenagers and young adults aged 13-29 years who live in Los Angeles, California. A door-to-door survey will be performed, which will entail knocking on doors of the homes located in the Los Angeles area to locate eligible participants. During the door-to-door survey, the researcher will outline the purpose of the survey and seek informed consent before issuing eligible participants with the questionnaire. To ensure random sampling, an online random generator for Los Angeles addresses will be deployed. For adolescents aged 13-18 years, informed assent from parents or guardians before collecting data. The collected data will be anonymized by ensuring that no personal data is gathered such that the completed questionnaires cannot be linked to the addresses of participants. The collected data will be input into Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for analysis.

Data Analysis. To assess the impact of SM on mental health outcomes, independent samples t-tests will be performed for the three variables of depression symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and perceived loneliness. This test is employed to assess if there is a significant difference in the means of two unrelated groups. For this test to be used, the dependent variable need to be continuous. The collected data on anxiety and depression symptoms and perceived loneliness are continuous; thus, suitable for this test. The independent variable must be categorical consisting of two groups. In the proposed study, it will consist of SM users and non-users of SM.